Modafinil: because coffee is for mugs

   With the end of the academic year looming, preparation for summer exams can prove to be a constant struggle to remain focused and refrain from engaging in the seemingly infinite number of more enjoyable things you could be doing. Constantly trying to cram your head with more information than it wishes to retain can be demoralizing, and sometimes your brain just doesn’t seem to do what you want it to. But what if there was a simple way to maintain concentration and improve your memory?

   For an increasing number of students this ‘what if’ is not simply conjecture, but a stark and understandably tempting reality. A smorgasbord of mind-enhancing prescription drugs is now available which enable whoever scoffs them to knuckle down and swot up for their imminent deadlines, more alert and awake than ever.

   The theme of cognitive-enhancing drugs was the inspiration behind the recently-released film Limitless in which Bradley Cooper plays a struggling writer who, in a desperate bid to complete his belated novel, accepts a mysterious pill that allows users to access 100% of their brain’s potential, as opposed to the meager 20% usually on offer. Unfortunately, unlike the fictional NZT-48 featured in the film, the available pharmaceuticals are unlikely to enable you to write a book in four days, transform you into an overnight Wall Street mogul and win back your ex. But the prospect of a quick and easy way to improve concentration and gain even the slightest edge for a pending exam or essay deadline may be an appealing one for many students.

   Indeed, a poll conducted by the scientific journal Nature revealed that roughly one in five readers, many of whom were students, have used so-called “smart pills” to improve concentration. In this study participants were quizzed specifically on 3 drugs: beta-blockers, which are used for heart conditions and have an anti-anxiety property; modafinil, used for treatment of narcolepsy and other sleep disorders; and methylphenidate, more commonly known as Ritalin, which is used to treat ADHD.  Of these three substances, Ritalin proved to be the most popular with 62% of readers who responded positively to the survey reporting to have taken it, followed by modafinil (44%)  and beta-blockers (15%).

   Research conducted by Barbara Sahakian, professor of clinical neuropsychology at Cambridge, revealed that in some US universities as many as 17% of students admitted to taking Ritalin as a brain-booster. The exhaustive list of available learning supplements extends far beyond these three drugs, including donepezil, Adderall, and Dexedrine to name but a few.  Each of them have the effect of improving the ability to concentrate for prolonged periods of time, and Ritalin and modafinil in particular have been shown to improve memory capacity.

   More so than Ritalin or beta-blockers, modafinil is emerging as a popular work aid amongst UK students. “I’ve used [modafinil] on a few occasions. It’s like Viagra for the mind”, said one Bristol University student who has experimented with the drug to help him study. “The first couple of times I tried it I thought it was amazing - I could work all night without getting tired or distracted”. But the student, who wished to remain anonymous, did warn of the undesirable consequences; “other times it was too much and you can’t get to sleep for hours, even when you know your body must be exhausted.”

   None of these drugs are freely available for over-the-counter consumption in the UK but some, namely modafinil, can legally be purchased online and imported from pharmacies abroad – often from China. This was also the case with the recreational “legal high” mephedrone, which could be imported, and consumed and sold within the bounds of the law until its classification as a class B drug last April.

   Modafinil, also commonly refered to by its brand name Provigil, has been authorized for use in some operations by the French Foreign Legion and the US Air Force, in preference over the traditional use of amphetamines, to keep troops focused during lengthy operations in which sleep deprivation is incurred.

The use of nootropics (cognitive enhancing substances) in academia is hardly a new trend. People have long used amphetamines to keep them working longer and harder, and the more commonly acceptable stimulants caffeine and nicotine are staples for many a student. But are there any significant differences between these old school study buddies and the new kids on the block?

   Caffeine-containing substances such as coffee, ProPlus and guarana work by indiscriminately boosting the whole nervous system for a short period of time, creating an increased sense of mental stimulation and reducing the body’s perception of fatigue, but also creating a jittery feeling after one cup too many. Despite extensive research, the precise mechanism by which modafinil works is still unclear, but it is apparently more ‘refined’ than caffeine or amphetamines, providing stimulation to targeted areas of the brain and actively improving memory retention. The effective duration of the drug is also much longer than that of caffeine, with the result of users being able to work for hours on end from a single dose before crashing.

   Some have argued that to take these drugs is a form of cheating, but it is hard to say that using them constitutes cheating when they are equally available to any student wishing to access them. As Professor Sahakian from the Nature study points out, “just as one would hardly propose that a strong cup of coffee could be the secret of academic achievement or faster career advancement, the use of such drugs does not necessarily entail cheating."

   As with all relatively new drugs, recreational or otherwise, very little has yet been determined about any negative side effects that may be incurred by using modafinil. This is purely because it has not been in circulation for a long enough period to form representative, non-clinical studies on use in healthy patients, and with time more will be known about the extent and nature of any detrimental effects. Perhaps the biggest risk to users is the uncertain purity of the chemical that you are purchasing from an unvalidated company selling you drugs from half way round the world. The most rigorous of clinical trials won’t allow you to make an informed decision on the substance you are choosing to take if that substance is not what it claims to be.

   Importantly, recognition of the growing use of cognitive enhancing medication is needed by academic institutions. They should make their stance on the use of these drugs clear, be it one of condemnation of one of indifference, and make students aware if their actions would be classed as cheating.

Martyn Tranter: The Arctic Academic

On the few days a year that it snows in the UK, the country descends into bedlam; roads are closed, shops are cleared of their stock in a torrent of panic buying and schools and work places are closed until the blizzard subsides. But having spent well over a year conducting research in the Arctic and Antarctic, heading off to work in the snow is the norm for Bristol University’s Martyn Tranter. 

Based in the School of Geographical Sciences, Martyn is soon to be awarded the Polar Medal for enduring the extreme weather and conditions that exist in the Arctic and Antarctic. I went to speak to him about the expeditions that have earned him this prestigious accolade, and find out about the research that takes him to the ends of the earth. 

What does your research involve?

I look at geochemical reactions at the bottoms of glaciers and ice sheets where there is a lot of biological activity. You’d never believe it; fifteen years ago people didn’t really think there was microbial activity under glaciers let alone ice sheets, but there definitely appears to be. Increasingly there is a climate change aspect to the work that we do and what we’re interested in is, for example, the production of green house gasses from beneath ice sheets. A lot of them have grown over soils and forests, and it’s very likely that microbes are turning over that organic matter, so the current drive in biogeochemistry of the cryosphere is how much CO2 or methane is being produced, how stable it is, and whether it could be catastrophically released into the atmosphere.

Walking on lake ice in the Valley of the Dead, Antarctica. The 

landscape here is littered with the mummified carcasses of seals

Where have you worked?
I've been to Greenland several times and I've been to Antarctica several times. I've also been to the European Alps and Svalbard, which is half way between northern Norway and the North Pole. When I sum up the time I've been in the field  it’s well over a year.

How do you deal with the extreme Arctic weather conditions? 

You sort of get used to it. Curiously, you’re often most comfortable when the temperature is well bellow zero, but if there’s wind and a lot of humidity in the air you really feel the cold. In the temperatures I work in, 4°C is a tropical heat wave, and in Antarctica it would only get up to one or two degrees. At -20°C you’re very conscious that your body gets cold very quickly and your face stings if it’s exposed to the cold at all. The lowest temperature that I’ve been out in is -50°C in Saskatchewan and then, despite the fact you've got tons of clothing on, when you stop moving you can feel a cold wave coming into your clothes and the wind cuts into you like a knife. You have a hot drink and a sandwich to keep you going, but you don't want to rest for more than 20 minutes because the cold gets into you and you stiffen up. 

Do you find yourself eating a lot out there to deal with the cold?

Its great for a fat bugger - you’ve just got to keep eating carbohydrates and fat. Chocolate is great – sweet and fat. Everybody just goes for the sweet stuff. You just can’t help yourself. The first time I went down when I was younger I was on double eggs and bacon for breakfast, my body just said ‘get the fat down you’. Meal time is a big thing, particularly the evening meal. An army marches on its stomach, and so does a field camp.

Are you involved in the Lake Vostok drilling program?

There are 3 big drilling campaigns going on at the moment: The Russians are drilling into Lake Vostok and they’ve just stopped 30 meters short. In two winter’s time the Americans are going into the Whillans Ice Stream looking at is glacial lakes in the fast moving bits of the Antarctic ice sheet. The Brits are going into sub glacial Lake Ellsworth, which is a small lake under the west Antarctic ice sheet. That’s the project I’m involved in, and we hope that in two years time, if the Russians don’t get into Vostok, we will directly access waters from beneath the Antarctic ice sheet. 

Some criticisms of such projects are that they could contaminate a pristine environment that has been isolated for millions of years. How do you ensure that this doesn’t happen?

You have to take that sort of thing very seriously. What we feel about it is if you take the types of microorganisms that are adapted to exist on the surface and then stick them under 3 or 4 km of ice at a temp of -2°C, the balance of probability suggests that not many of these microbes would be able to survive in this environment. We’re also trying to minimise the number of microbes we introduce from the surface of the lake and all the equipment will be sterilized with UV and hydrogen peroxide. We’re charged to take these precautions by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), and have to provide all our planning to the international research community. So, we think we are on pretty solid ground.

Martyn Tranter and Jemma Wadham sampling waters
draining over winter from Finsterwalderbreen, Svalbard. 
The air temperature is well below freezing.

Do you encounter much wildlife?
In Antarctica I work where [Captain] Scott's team trained before their final expedition, and they named it the Valley of the Dead. That’s because some of the seals, as they’re trying to head towards the sea ice edge, accidentally turn left and start going up the Valley where they eventually run out of energy and die. Scattered throughout the valley are mummified seals, some of which are a couple of thousand years old. I’ve seen orcas take a minke whale calf, and you also see them ‘spy hopping’, which is where they come up to the surface, see where the penguins and seals are and jump on to the ice and grab whatever they can. The skuas then come down and scavenge the scraps. It’s a brutal environment. 

Are any of the animals dangerous to humans?

The big predators in the Antarctic are leopard seals, they take a scuba diver every now and then. In Svalbard I’ve encountered polar bears several times, some of which could have been unpleasant. Once we were there just when the bears were coming out of hibernation when they are really hungry, and we had an incident where a couple of young polar bears were trying to break in to the hut that we were sleeping in.

How did you get them to go?

You frighten them off with noise because they’ve got very sensitive hearing, and the wind on the hut drove them nuts - they don’t like noise they’re not used to. You get drilled when you go to these places; you’re taught how to use a rifle, you’re taught how to use a flare, you’re taught what to do, and you’ve screwed up big time if you have to shoot a bear. 

Are you looking forward to receiving the Polar Medal? 

Yeah its March 1st I'm getting it. I'm a Taffy and that’s St David's Day, my wife and kids are coming up and it’s in Buckingham palace, so I'm really looking forward to it. I’m a bit embarrassed, but proud underneath. You don't do the research to get anything like that, but when it comes along its really nice.

Biodiversity in the year 2010

You may or may not realise that we are now drawing towards the end of what has been officially dubbed the International Year of Biodiversity. But with over 400 partners in the UK alone, including Bristol University, you may have noticed the distinctive logo which features various images of life silhouetted against a bold, green ‘2010’.

Despite being commonplace today, the term Biodiversity (a derivation of Biological Diversity) was first coined as late as 1986 by the prestigious biologist E.O. Wilson. At its simplest, biodiversity relates to the abundance and diversity of life on the planet: from animals to plants; from fungi to bacteria. A more holistic interpretation of the word encompasses more than just diversity of species, but also diversity in ecosystems and habitat types.

The year was declared at the United Nations General Assembly in 2006, and was conceived to serve as a celebration of the diversity of life on earth and to reinforce the aims of the 2010 Biodiversity target, established in 2002 by the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Human-induced extinctions due to over-hunting and habitat destruction have occurred for hundreds of years. In more recent times these problems continue but are exacerbated by more complex and general threats like global warming and ocean acidification. Joseph Alcamo of the United Nations Environment Programme said “Since 1970, we have reduced animal populations by 30%, the area of mangroves and sea grasses by 20% and the coverage of living corals by 40%. These losses are clearly unsustainable”.

China's Baiji, or Yangtze River Dolphin, was declared functionally extinct in 2006 after an expedition failed to find any surviving individuals in the river.

World leaders have essentially failed to meet the target of reducing the rate of decline in global biodiversity they committed to 8 years ago. A paper published earlier this year in the prestigious journal Science collected data from over 30 indicators, including species abundance, risk of extinction and habitat coverage, and concluded that biodiversity continues to be degraded at an alarming rate. “Our analysis shows that governments have failed to deliver on the commitments they made in 2002: biodiversity is still being lost as fast as ever” said the paper’s lead author Dr Stuart Butchart.

It is not that the drive to preserve life on earth has been without its successes; In the UK the Large Blue butterfly and Red Kite have successfully been re-introduced, and the lady’s slipper orchard - once thought extinct in the wild - now has an expanding population in Lancashire. Progress outside the UK includes the recovering wild population of the Black Stilt, a wading bird found only in New Zealand.

However, these token species have required intensive programs of reintroduction and protection to ensure their survival; the Lady’s Slipper was at one point under 24 hour police protection, which is expensive and clearly not an option for the 1,500 or so species which have been identified as being endangered to the point of near extinction.

Hopefully, the victories achieved so far will demonstrate what can be achieved and that species can be returned from the brink of extinction, but more focus is needed on the underlying causes of extinctions such as habitat destruction and pollution of waterways. Unfortunately, many of the most biologically rich and diverse areas of the world are also amongst the poorest. Whilst it is easy to condemn mass deforestation in the tropics, it provides a livelihood for many people. 

Despite this, a sustainable approach to wildlife management should not have to conflict with human interest, and the activities which provide short term gain at the expense of the environment are not only interfering with a few lovable characters like the panda, but disturbing the delicate balance of the biosphere which we all depend on.

The year 2010 should certainly be seen as an occasion to celebrate the abundance of life on earth but, much more urgently, should mark the turning point when world leaders recognise the extent of the damage already caused and the degree of effort required to bring it to an end.

New Species of Carnivorous Mammal is Discovered in Madagascar

There are approximately 5,500 species of mammal in the world, although the exact figure is widely disputed. Despite being one of the most widely studied and well documented class of animals, it is easy to see why a definitive list is hard to produce, especially when you consider that distinct new species are still being discovered.

The last decade has seen a number of surprising new additions to the known animal kingdom. The Cypriot mouse, described in 2006, was the first new species of mammal to be discovered in Europe for over a century, despite widespread belief that all European mammal species had been documented. Only seven years ago a new species of rorqual whale (related to the blue whale) was described by Japanese scientists, and still virtually nothing is known about it. And it is not just new mammals that are cropping up; new birds are recorded practically every year, and last year a single expedition in Columbia found 10 new species of amphibian.

A researcher from the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust in Madagascar 

handling the captured Durrell's vontsira in it's wetland habitat.

News of a new species is always exciting, and the most recent discovery has not failed to stir the scientific community. Researchers from the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust have described a new species of mammal in Madagascar.  This has excited Biologists as it is the first new species of carnivorous mammal to be discovered in 24 years. Named Durrell's vontsira, in tribute to the late writer and conservationist Gerald Durrell, the cat-sized animal was first spotted swimming in a lake by members of the organisation in 2004. Researchers suspected the creature to be a new species from photographs taken at the time, and a returning expedition the following year trapped a number of specimens for closer inspection.

Their suspicions have now been confirmed by zoologists at the Natural History Museum who compared the new mammal to its closest known relative, the brown-tailed vontsira. Significant anatomical differences were discovered, indicating the emergence of a new, distinct species. Dr Paula Jenkins, a member of the research team at the Natural History Museum, described these differences; "We found obvious differences in the structure of the skull and teeth...the size and shape of the pads on the paws clearly distinguished this animal from the brown-tailed vontsira, which is a forest-dwelling animal found in eastern Madagascar.”

Also dubbed the scruffy ferret due to its pelt of wiry brown hair, it belongs to the family Eupleridae, and is a close relative of the mongoose. The Eupleridae are found exclusively in Madagascar and this particular species is believed to be confined only to the wetlands of Lake Alaotra in the country's Toamasina Province. Unfortunately, this habitat is under intense pressure from expanding agricultural practice and the new creature is already believed to be critically endangered. “Durrell's vontsira is incredibly rare”, Dr Jenkins added. “We know of only two animals in the wild. It has only been found in the wetlands of [Lake] Alaotra”.

The appearance of a new herbivorous or insect-eating mammal is far more common, as there is simply more of them, however the odds of stumbling upon a new predator like this are substantially lower. Durrell's vontsira is of particular interest as it is thought to live an aquatic lifestyle, whereas most of its relatives - including it's cousin, the brown-tailed vontsira - are found in forest or arid habitats.

Unfortunately, astounding new finds like this are few and far between in contrast to the staggering rate at which species are going extinct, largely due to human activity. The IUCN report that the current rate of species extinction is up to 1,000 times that of the natural background rate, with around 3,000 listed species - including Durrell's vontsira - being critically endangered. As promising as it is to see new characters emerge in a world we feel is already so well understood, the fact remains that species are being forever lost at a far greater rate than they are being found, and discoveries like this should serve as a potent reminder of what we have to lose.